| 1 | Speaker | 2 | Speech | 3 | Audience |
| 4 | Effect | 5 | Occasion | 6 | Aristotle |
+ It is simple;
+ It presents the communication process in a structure of clearly identifiable and describable elements;
+ It has great historical importance as it stimulated further research;
+ With its introduction of the ‘noise’ concept (i.e. any signals that might interfere with the transmission of the message) helps to start looking for what can go wrong in the communication process;
+ It aims at optimizing the communication process to be most effective.
– It is too simple;
– It shows a one-way process and excludes any feedback from the receiver to the sender;
– It is good for person-to-person communication, but not so effective for group or mass communication;
– In its setup of a sender sending a message to the receiver, this model prioritizes the sender, whereas the receiver has a merely passive role
interactive
Nonverbal communication barrier: sitting posture expressing disinterest or boredom, no eye contact to speaker.
Prejudice or Stereotype
Of these, listening and speaking are oral, while reading and writing refer to written texts.
Listening and reading are generally considered as receptive, whereas speaking and writing are productive skills.
‘To hear’ is more of the passive kind, picking up sounds that accidentally reach our ear. ‘To listen’ is even more active, intentional and intent, as it means focusing on a sound source we already know about.
The sense of sight is switched off in sleep, whereas the sense of hearing is always ‘switched on’.
Listening is an active process, because we do not only receive sounds. Sounds do not in themselves have a meaning, but we select those sound patterns from the surrounding noise which make sense to us and construct this sense in our brain.
The dog ate the sausage.
implicature
4. He wanted to make clear that a text could only come into being as a communal effort of the class.
Comprehension reading is reading for content and to understand the facts and arguments in a text, whereas critical reading distances itself from the text, tries to verify its propositions and statements, explores opinions expressed in the text, especially when they are only implied.
Skimming means you try to understand the general drift of the argument and the findings presented in a text.
Scanning is a technique which helps you spot specific details of information you are looking for in a text which may otherwise not be relevant to your purpose.
3, 6, 7
Survey! Question! Read! Recite! Review!
What
Where
When
How
Why
Who
I KEEP six honest serving-men:
(They taught me all I knew)
Their names are What and Where and When
And How and Why and Who.
I send them over land and sea,
I send them east and west;
But after they have worked for me
I give them all a rest.
(1) Summary:
Summarize the main points of a paragraph or section.
(2) Paraphrase:
Reformulate central points in your own words.
(3) Quotation:
Write down words and phrases you want to retain in the author’s own words in quotation marks.
5. Identify your context (audience, course type, deadline, length etc.)
3. Identify your subject and purpose
6. Research and collect the material
2. Create an outline
7. Write the text following the outline
4. Edit and design your text
This is called a mindmap.
It is a good way to visualize and organise your ideas in the planning stage of your writing assignment.
Use Questions
Use Thesis Statements
Create a table of contents with headings and subheadings
The text unit which is next in size above the sentence. It expresses and develops one main idea.
The first and perhaps the greatest challenge facing Nigeria and making it difficult for good quality education that is capable of bringing about sustainable development is inadequate funding by federal, state and local governments. In 1997 and 2000 statistics show that federal government expenditure on education was below 10% of overall expenditure. It noticed that, the national expenditure on education cannot be computed because various states’ expenditure on education cannot be determined, in relation to the UNESCO recommendation of 26% of national budgets. In 2013, the government has finally assigned billions of naira to the educational sector and this effort has to be sustained.
Definition: Signposts in a text are like signposts on the road: They show the direction, warn to watch out and pay particular attention. They can point to important connections in the argument, to important points you make or direct the reader’s attention in other ways.
Example 1: e.g. importantly
Example 2: e.g. primarily
Example 3: e.g. as a consequence
Example 4: e.g. nevertheless
– numbering of headings is inconsistent;
– typeface and font size of headings is inconsistent;
– highlighting /signposting inconsistent (different font types, different colours) and unclear (yellow is not legible);
– paragraph 2 too short;
– paragraph 5 probably too long;
– font size too small in paragraph 4;
– font switches from Times New Roman to Arial in paragraph 3, and then back;
e.g.
Where exactly it is situated, so you will easily find it (room number, floor, building etc.);
Where you will be standing (or sitting?), where and in what order the audience will sit. Does the room need re-arranging?
What is the media equipment of the room? Are all appliances there that you may need, and are they in good working order?
What is the lighting situation? Do you get daylight, do you need to pull down the blinds when you are using a projector for PowerPoint projections?
Does the room have air conditioning? Does it work? Otherwise, are there alternative ways of ventilation?
Can you spot potential sources of disturbance?
e.g.
Mistakes in 1:
Mistakes in 2:
e.g.
In 1, the question is whether you noticed the music at all (and, possibly, were disturbed by it); in 2, the question is whether you attentively focused on it, e.g. by going out and sitting with the musicians.]
Contrast poverty on the one hand and technological advance on the other, Poverty as a trap and prison which is similar to slavery and apartheid, Its abolition is an act of justice, Steps to be taken are establish trade justice and end debt crisis.
Use of phrases establishing community e.g. “as you know”, Direct address e.g. “you – young people of Britain” and imperatives e.g. “Act with courage…”, Reference to (shared) humanity, Use of “we” as personal pronoun
Reading is an intellectual, creative activity, not just passive reception…
…because meaning is also created by the reader
An implicature is something expressed…
…by the ‘pragmatics’ of a text passage (i.e. its conventional meaning and context)
Training the skill of critical reading helps you to…
…form your own opinion about a text.
In comprehension reading you look for…
…an understanding of what the text is about and understand what the author tries to convey
Skimming means…
to read through a text quickly to find out its main ideas
look out for headlines and summaries
The SQR3 Method stands for
Survey – Question – Read – Recite – Review
Writing is an active skill, not only because something is produced and not only received, but because knowledge is generated in the process. This process of writing is not linear, but you may have to go back to earlier steps and revise even during the process of writing. The smallest unit in a text above the sentence level is the paragraph. It consists of three main elements, the topical sentence, supporting sentences and a concluding sentence. When you revise, you look at the deep structure and content of the text, whereas when you edit, you consider the surface. When you check for style in your text, you look at syntax, words, tone and register. The main registers are formal, informal and neutral. You would use a formal register when writing a letter to the Vice Chancellor of your University, and an informal register in an email to a friend.
